What Are Some Evidence-based Strategies That Help Minimize the Effects of Divorce on Families

Child Dev. Writer manuscript; available in PMC 2012 January 1.

Published in final edited form as:

PMCID: PMC3057658

NIHMSID: NIHMS215115

Protecting children from the consequences of divorce: A longitudinal study of the furnishings of parenting on children'southward coping processes

Abstract

This study examined whether intervention-induced changes in mother-child relationship quality and discipline led to short-term (6 months) and long-term (6 years) changes in children'southward coping processes in a sample of 240 youth aged 9-12 years when assessed initially. Data were from a randomized, experimental trial of a parenting-focused preventive intervention designed to improve children's post-divorce adjustment. Three-wave prospective mediational analyses revealed that intervention-induced improvements in relationship quality led to increases in coping efficacy at vi months and to increases in coping efficacy and active coping at 6 years. Tests of the mediated furnishings were significant for all 3 indirect paths. Results are discussed in terms of pathways to adaptive coping and implications for the implementation of preventive interventions targeting coping.

Keywords: Parenting, Coping, Divorce, Preventive Intervention

Protecting children from the consequences of divorce: A longitudinal written report of the furnishings of parenting on children's coping processes

Information technology is well documented that psychosocial stressors constitute a meaning, pervasive take chances for children'south mental health problems (e.g., Grant et al., 2006) and that coping processes mediate and moderate the relation between stressors and mental health problems (e.grand., Compas, Connor-Smith, Saltzman, Thomsen, & Wadsworth, 2001). The literature suggests that engagement coping efforts, or efforts oriented toward the stressor or ane's emotional reaction, are mostly associated with reduced mental health problems, whereas detachment coping efforts, or efforts oriented away from the stressor or one's emotional reaction, are typically associated with higher mental health problems (Compas et al., 2001). Coping efficacy, the belief that 1 can bargain with the demands of and emotions caused by stressful situations, has besides been shown to negatively relate to mental health problems and to mediate the relations betwixt active coping and mental health problems (Sandler, Tein, Mehta, Wolchik, & Ayers, 2000).

Identification of factors that affect the evolution of coping processes in babyhood has implications for both developmental psychology and prevention science. An agreement of linkages between factors that are potentially modifiable and coping processes has detail significance for the design of interventions for at-risk populations that are exposed to elevated levels of stressors, such as children from divorced families, parentally bereaved children and youth living in fierce communities.

Although peers exert increasing influence on development starting in middle childhood, the family arguably is the most powerful context in which coping socialization occurs (Kliewer, Sandler, & Wolchik, 1994; Ability, 2004). Kliewer and her colleagues (1994) discussed three means in which the family may influence coping processes: coaching, modeling, and aspects of the family context such as parent-child human relationship quality and family interaction patterns. The current study focused on the links betwixt two aspects of the family context, female parent-child human relationship quality and effective discipline, and children'due south active coping efforts, avoidant coping efforts and coping efficacy. Active and avoidant coping efforts reflect aspects of date and disengagement coping respectively (Sandler et al., 2000; Smith et al., 2006).

Children who have warm, positive relationships with their mothers may be more likely to use more active coping and less avoidant coping and have higher levels of coping efficacy than children with less positive relationships for several reasons. Get-go, positive relationships may promote a sense of security (Ainsworth, Blehar, Waters & Wall, 1978) which may reduce the threat of stressors (Gunnar, 2000; Kliewer et al., 1994), leading to a greater propensity to use active rather than avoidant coping efforts. 2d, children who have positive relationships with their mothers may feel comfy using mothers equally a resource to solve issues, which may lead to more than active coping and less avoidant coping. 3rd, positive emotions generated through contact with highly accepting mothers may counter negative emotions that interfere with active coping efforts. Fourth, high quality mother-child relationships probable include opportunities for instruction in and reinforcement of adaptive coping efforts, which in plow may increase coping efficacy (Causey & Dubow, 1993).

High levels of consistent and constructive subject may promote adaptive coping processes by enhancing children's sense of the predictability of their environments (Kliewer et al., 1994; Parkes, 1984). The consequent occurrence of expected consequences for misbehaviors may promote a sense of command, which could lead to higher levels of active coping and coping efficacy and lower levels of avoidant coping (Skinner & Wellborn, 1994). Also, a consequent, predictable surround may foster evaluation of the effectiveness of coping efforts (Kliewer et al., 1994). By creating an environment in which children evaluate their coping efforts and recognize coping successes and failures, consequent, effective subject area may raise their coping efficacy.

A number of studies have examined links between aspects of the family environment and children's coping efforts (see Power, 2004 for a review). Overall, prove shows that factors such equally parental warmth, acceptance, support, family unit cohesion and firm rule enforcement are positively associated with engagement efforts and negatively associated with disengagement efforts. In dissimilarity, very few researchers accept examined links between parenting and children's coping efficacy. The limited research suggests that maternal support, paternal support, and maternal consistent field of study are positively associated with coping efficacy (Brook et al., 2002; Smith et al., 2006).

Equally Power (2004) noted, the literature on the relations betwixt parenting and children's coping processes has increased markedly in the last few years. Nevertheless, nearly all the research has been cross-exclusive. To our knowledge, longitudinal designs have been used in only two studies. Studying children with spina bifida and matched controls, McKernon et al. (2001) found that maternal responsiveness, paternal responsiveness, and family cohesion each predicted trouble-focused coping two years afterwards for both groups of children. Neither maternal nor paternal demandingness predicted subsequent coping. In a sample of adolescents, Johnson and Pandina (1991) found that parental hostility positively predicted the use of drugs and alcohol to cope and emotional outbursts 3 years later. The prospective relations between parental warmth and punishments of a psychological nature were not significant. These findings provide evidence of a longitudinal relation between parenting and children'southward coping efforts. However, the generalizability of the findings is limited because McKernon et al. (2001) used a very specific sample and Johnson and Pandina (1991) used a coping mensurate that included behaviors such as emotional outbursts that are often viewed as indicators of adjustment problems.

At that place is evidence that the nature and consequences of parenting differ by kid gender (Leaper, 2002) and that girls and boys may prefer different coping efforts (Herman & McHale, 1993; Santiago & Wadsworth, 2009). The findings of the few studies that specifically examined the role of gender in the relations between parenting and children's coping processes, yet, have been inconsistent (e.grand., Herman & McHale, 1993; Kliewer, Fearnow & Miller, 1996).

The current study used data from the New Ancestry Programme (NBP), a randomized experimental trial of a preventive intervention for divorced families, to examine the relations between program-induced changes in parenting and children'due south coping processes. This randomized trial provides a unique opportunity to experimentally test hypothesized pathways that may touch on coping processes. In a passive prospective correlational study, relations betwixt parenting and coping could be accounted for by tertiary variables that are shared past both, such every bit shared genes between the parent and kid. A randomized trial allows a test of whether experimentally-induced changes in parenting account for experimentally-induced changes in coping processes, thus strengthening the causal inference between these variables (Cole & Maxwell, 2003).

The NBP is a theory-based preventive intervention designed to improve children's post-divorce mental health problems. The conceptual model underlying our research on the prevention of mail-divorce problems combines elements from a person-surround transactional framework and a gamble and protective cistron model. Derived from epidemiology (Institute of Medicine, 1994), the gamble and protective factor model posits that the likelihood of mental health problems is affected by exposure to gamble factors and the availability of protective resources. Person-environment transactional models posit that dynamic person-surround processes underlie individual evolution across time. Aspects of the social surroundings touch on the development of problems and competencies in an individual, which in plow influence the social surround and evolution of competencies and bug at later developmental stages (Sameroff, 2000).

Cummings, Davies and Campbell'due south (2000) cascading pathway model integrates these two models into a developmental framework. From this perspective, stressful events, such as divorce, can pb to an unfolding of failures to resolve developmental tasks and increase susceptibility to mental health problems and harm in developmental competencies. Parenting is viewed as playing a central part in facilitating children'due south successful adaptation, and the skills and resources developed in successful resolution of earlier developmental tasks are important tools for managing time to come challenges. In terms of the current study, this framework suggests that parenting is an important resource facilitating the use of adaptive coping processes in the postal service-divorce menses, which in plow may pb to more positive outcomes over time.

Two randomized trials of the NBP tested a program for custodial mothers (Wolchik et al., 1993; 2000). The second trial also tested whether a kid component strengthened program effects by comparing the mother program only to a dual-component program that included a female parent program and a child program. Analyses in both trials indicated that participation in the mother program significantly reduced child mental health problems and improved parenting at post-test compared to the control status. The dual component condition did not produce condiment effects on coping processes or mental wellness outcomes at post-test. Neither plan improved active coping, avoidant coping or coping efficacy relative to the command condition at post-test. The child component led to few additive effects on other putative mediators and no additive effects on mental health outcomes at 6-month or 6-year follow-up (Wolchik et al., 2000; 2002).

Thus, in the second trial, the two active weather were combined to provide a more parsimonious view of the program effects at the half dozen-twelvemonth follow-up. At this follow-upwards, positive program effects occurred on a range of outcomes including internalizing and externalizing problems, symptoms of mental disorder, diagnosis of mental disorder, alcohol apply, drug use, number of sexual partners, grade point average and self-esteem. For several effects, benefits were greater for those with higher baseline gamble (Dawson-McClure, Sandler, Wolchik, & Millsap, 2004; Wolchik et al., 1993; 2000; 2002).

The present report examined whether intervention-induced changes in mother-child relationship quality and effective discipline at post-test led to short-term (6 months) and long-term (6 years) increases in active coping and coping efficacy, and short-term and long-term decreases in avoidant coping. Gender differences were examined; withal, given the limited, inconsistent nature of the inquiry on this topic, hypotheses were not made.

This study advances the enquiry on the relation between parenting and children's coping in three ways. Outset, the use of a randomized, experimental design strengthens inferences about the causal nature of relations between parenting and coping over those that can be drawn from previous piece of work which has been cross-sectional and correlational. 2d, the sample is comprised of youth who had experienced parental divorce, a transition that occurs to one.5 one thousand thousand youth in the U.S. each year (National Center for Health Statistics, 1995) and has been shown to elevate the gamble for multiple issues across the life span (e.g., Amato, 2001; Chase-Lansdale, Cherlin, & Kiernan, 1995). Thus, the findings take implications for promoting the functioning of a large grouping of at-risk youth. Third, by examining short-term and long-term relations betwixt female parent-child relationship quality and effective bailiwick and three types of coping processes, this study addresses the possibility of differential contributions of these dimensions of parenting to various aspects of coping across developmental periods.

Method

Participants and Program Conditions

Participants were identified primarily through courtroom records of divorce decrees in a big Southwestern metropolitan canton (xx% were recruited through media advertisements or word of mouth). Eligibility criteria, described in detail elsewhere (Wolchik et al., 2000), included the divorce occurring within the by two years; in that location existence at least one kid between 9 and 12 in the family unit; the mother being the primary residential parent; and the mother having not remarried, not having a alive-in boyfriend, and not planning to remarry during the trial. Considering of the preventive nature of the intervention and ethical concerns, families were excluded and referred for treatment if the child endorsed an item virtually suicidality or exhibited severe levels of depressive symptomatology or externalizing problems at pre-test. In families with multiple children in the age range, i was randomly selected to exist interviewed.

The sample consisted of 240 families that were randomly assigned to one of iii conditions: (a) a mother-but grouping-format plan (MP) (n = 81), (b) a dual-component mother program plus kid program (MPCP) (separate, concurrent groups for mothers and children, north = 83), or (c) a literature control condition (n = 76). Comparison of families that agreed to participate in the intervention study during an initial recruitment session and those that refused participation in the intervention study but agreed to complete the pre-test interview indicated that acceptors had higher incomes and teaching and fewer children than refusers (Wolchik et al., 2002). The three intervention conditions did not differ on demographic variables or kid mental wellness problems at pre-examination. All participants assigned to condition completed the postal service-exam. Comparisons of the control, mother, and mother plus child groups on the demographic variables at the 6-twelvemonth follow-up revealed no significant group differences. Analyses found no significant interactions betwixt group membership and compunction status at follow-up on the mental wellness outcomes of externalizing or internalizing problems.

The mother plan targeted four empirically-supported correlates of postal service-divorce mental wellness problems: mother-child relationship quality, constructive discipline, father's access to the child, and interparental conflict. The plan consisted of 11 group sessions (1.75 hr.) and 2 individual sessions (1 hr). Five grouping sessions focused on mother-child relationship quality, iii focused on effective discipline. The programme employed multiple empirically-supported behavior change strategies based on social learning and cognitive behavioral theories. The groups, which consisted of 8 to 10 mothers, were co-led by two Chief's-level clinicians. More than details are provided in Wolchik, Sandler, Weiss and Winslow (2007).

The eleven-session child program focused on increasing constructive coping, reducing negative thoughts virtually divorce-related stressors, and improving mother-kid relationship quality. Several clinical methods derived from social learning and social cognitive theory were used. Children were taught to recognize and characterization feelings (Stark, 1990) and utilize deep-breathing relaxation (Weissberg, Caplan, & Bennetto, 1988). The program besides included segments on constructive problem solving (e.g., Weissberg et al., 1988), positive cognitive reframing (Meichenbaum, 1986), challenging common negative appraisals (Stark, 1990), and giving "I-messages" (Guerney, 1978). Skills were introduced through presentations, videotapes, or modeling past grouping leaders. Children good the skills through games, role-plays, or, for communication skills, in a conjoint session with their mothers. The groups were co-led by 2 Master's-level clinicians.

Both mothers and children in the literature control condition were sent three books on divorce adjustment and syllabi to guide their reading over a half-dozen-week period.

At pre-exam, the average age of the children was 10.iv (SD = 1.1); 49% were girls. Mothers' mean age was 37.3 years (SD = 4.8); 98% had at least a high schoolhouse education. Mother'due south ethnicity was 88% Caucasian, non-Hispanic; eight% Hispanic; ii% African American; 1% Asian/Pacific Islander; and 1% other. Families had been separated and divorced for an average of 2.2 years (SD = 1.four) and i.0 yr (SD = 0.five), respectively. At 6-year follow-upwards, adolescents ranged from fifteen to 19 years (M = 16.ix years; SD = i.1); eighty% and 11% lived with their mothers and fathers, respectively; 9% lived independently.

Procedure

Families were interviewed on five occasions: pre-test (T1), post-test (T2), and 3-month (T3), 6-month (T4), and 6-twelvemonth (T5) follow-upward. The current study used data from T1, T2, T4, and T5. T3 data were excluded given concerns almost blastoff inflation had both T3 and T4 been included in the analyses of short-term effects.

Trained staff conducted carve up home interviews with parents and youth. Confidentiality was explained and parents and youth signed consent/assent forms. Families received $45 bounty at T1, T2, and T4; parents and youth each received $100 bounty at T5. All 240 families completed assessments at T1 and T2; at T4 and T5, 98% (234 of 240) and 91% (218 of 240) of families participated, respectively.

Measures

Mother-Child Relationship Quality

Mothers completed the 16-detail acceptance and 16-item rejection subscales of a revised version of Schaefer's (1965) Child Report of Parenting Behavior Inventory, (CRPBI; Teleki, Powell, & Dodder, 1982; acceptance T2 α = .83, actual range = 32.0-48.0; rejection T2 α = .78, bodily range = thirty.0-38.0). Due to concerns almost the length of the kid bombardment, children completed reduced versions of the acceptance (10 items) and rejection (10 items) subscales of the revised CRPBI (acceptance T2 α = .83, actual range = 16.0-30.0; rejection T2 α = .82, actual range = xiii.0-thirty.0). Reductions were based on psychometric analyses of mothers' reports of the CRPBI in a previous study of divorced families (Programme for Prevention Enquiry, 1993). Sample items include "You almost always spoke to (kid) with a warm and friendly voice" and "Your mother wasn't very patient with you" for acceptance and rejection, respectively. Mothers and children completed the open family unit communication subscale (10 items) of the Parent-Adolescent Communication Calibration (Barnes & Olson, 1982; child report T2 α = .87, bodily range = 18.0-fifty.0; mother study T2 α = .75, actual range = thirty.0-50.0). A sample item is "(child) discussed his/her behavior with you lot without embarrassment." Mothers completed an abbreviated 7-detail version of the Family Routines Inventory (Jensen, Boyce, & Hartnett, 1983; T2 α= .63, actual range = xi.0-21.0). These seven items were selected because they reflected dyadic interactions between the female parent and child. A sample particular is "You regularly talked about things that happened each day." Female parent and child reports on all measures were standardized and averaged to create a multi-measure, multi-written report blended.

Subject field

Mothers and children completed the eight-particular inconsistent discipline subscale of Teleki et al.'s (1982) adaptation of the CRPBI (Schaefer, 1965, child report T2 α = .73, bodily range = 9.0 - 24.0; female parent report T2 α = .lxxx, actual range = xiv.0-24.0). A sample particular is "You before long forgot a dominion yous had made." Mothers besides completed the advisable discipline strategies subscale (ix items; T2 α = .77, range = 1.44-3.67) and inappropriate discipline strategies subscale (five items; T2 α = .59, range = i.00-3.threescore) from the Oregon Discipline Scale (Oregon Social Learning Center, 1991); these items were used to compute the ratio of advisable-to-inappropriate discipline. Sample item are "When (kid) misbehaved, how oftentimes did you become him/her to correct or make up for the problem or do a payback?" and "When (kid) misbehaved, how often did yous slap or hit him/her with your hand?" for advisable and inappropriate discipline, respectively. Mothers completed the follow-through subscale (11 items; T2 α = .76, actual range = two.63-5.0) from the Oregon Discipline Scale. A sample item is "How oftentimes have yous felt that you couldn't give discipline all the attention y'all would like to?" These iv scales were standardized and averaged to create a composite.

Coping Processes

At each wave, ii of the four factor-analytically derived subscales of the Children's Coping Strategies Checklist – Revised (CCSC-R; Ayers, Sandler, West, & Roosa, 1996) were used to assess active and avoidant coping efforts. These two dimensions were selected based on previous literature indicating links between active and avoidant coping and youth mental health problems, and on theoretical links betwixt parenting and these types of coping efforts. Confirmatory cistron analyses of the eight subdimensions that assessed agile and avoidant coping were conducted in a previous study that included all electric current participants and a subgroup that completed the pre-test but did non participate in the intervention. The results showed that the ii-cistron model provided an acceptable fit to the data (Sandler et al., 2000).

The CCSC-R is a dispositional coping measure; it asks youth about the coping strategies they generally used when faced with a problem in the past month. The active dimension (24 items) includes multiple engagement efforts and is comprised of six subdimensions borer behavioral actions and cognitive strategies to ready the trouble and cognitive date strategies that reduce the threatening implications of the stressor. The six subdimensions are direct trouble solving (eastward.chiliad., "Yous tried to brand things better past changing what you did"), cognitive decision making (e.g., "You considered consequences before y'all decided what to exercise"), positivity (e.g., "You reminded yourself that you lot are better off than a lot of other kids"), optimism (east.g., "You told yourself that things would become better"), control (e.thou., "Y'all reminded yourself that yous knew what to exercise"), and seeking understanding (due east.grand., "Y'all idea most what you could learn from the problem"). Avoidant coping (12 items) included three subdimensions: repression (e.g., "You lot tried to ignore it"), avoidant actions (You avoided the people who fabricated you experience bad"), and wishful thinking (e.g., "Yous wished that bad things wouldn't happen"). Items on each of the ii subscales were averaged to create two scale scores (i.east., active coping, avoidant coping); higher scores indicate greater endorsement of the coping type.

Children completed a vii-item Coping Efficacy Scale that has been shown to have a one-dimensional cistron structure and to chronicle negatively to children's mental health bug (Sandler et al., 2000). A sample particular is "Overall, how well practice you retrieve that the things you did during the last month worked to make the situation improve?" Alphas for active coping, avoidant coping, and coping efficacy were .94, .81, and .83, respectively for T4, and .92, .77, and .82, respectively for T5; actual ranges are presented in Table i.

Table 1

Correlations between Demographic and Report Variables and Descriptive Statistics for All Variables

Measure (Wave)	1.	2.	iii.	four.	Mean	Standard Departure	Actual Range	Skew	Kurtosis
i. Group	--	.05	.04	-.04	--	--	0.00 – 1.00	--	--
2. Age of Child		--	.ten	.02	10.35	1.12	9.00 – 12.00	.25	-1.13
iii. Gender of Child			--	.09	--	--	1.00 – two.00	--	--
4. Months since separation				--	26.88	17.23	2.00 – 144.00	2.69	11.85
5. Human relationship Quality (i)	-.08	-.11	-.05	.00	.01	.59	-two.12 – one.ten	-.42	.10
half dozen. Discipline (i)	-.04	.03	-.05	-.05	.00	.67	-2.57 – 1.57	-.41	.34
seven. Relationship Quality (ii)	.x	-.09	-.07	-.06	.29	.56	-ane.17 – ane.38	-.29	-.81
8. Field of study (two)	.eighteen**	.02	.00	-.07	.43	.63	-1.48 – ane.91	-.38	-.xv
9. Active Coping (1)	.02	-.x	-.03	-.01	10.34	1.84	5.l – fifteen.00	-.05	-.32
x. Avoidant Coping (1)	-.02	-.21***	.14*	.05	x.28	1.79	5.33 – 14.00	-.23	-.25
11. Coping Efficacy (1)	.05	.01	-.07	.00	20.35	3.08	9.00 – 28.00	-.20	.39
12. Active Coping (2)	-.04	-.00	.02	.01	10.82	2.16	iv.67 – 17.67	.10	-.36
13. Avoidant Coping (2)	.00	-.xvi*	.17*	.09	9.84	2.11	5.00 – 15.67	.29	-.36
14. Coping Efficacy (2)	-.04	-.04	.02	-.01	21.81	3.17	12.00 – 28.00	-.12	-.16
15. Agile Coping (iv)	-.04	-.02	.03	-.10	10.35	ii.xix	4.83 – fifteen.83	.27	-.07
16. Avoidant Coping (4)	.02	-.16*	.fifteen*	.03	nine.39	2.06	4.67 – 15.67	.35	.14
17. Coping Efficacy (4)	- .eleven	.00	.00	.06	21.71	3.32	10.00 – 28.00	-.25	.12
18. Active Coping (5)	-.04	.13	.00	-.01	11.fourscore	2.03	7.33 - 15.83	-.03	-.83
nineteen. Avoidant Coping (5)	.01	.09	.06	.12	9.46	one.87	iv.33 - xiv.33	.04	-.16
20. Coping Efficacy (5)	-.02	-.02	-.04	.04	21.87	3.eighteen	14.00 - 58.00	.06	-.46

Analytical Procedure

Mediation was tested using a three-moving ridge prospective design in which the intervention preceded assessment of the mediator (T2; mail service-test), and assessment of the mediator preceded assessment of the outcomes (T4; 6-month follow-up; T5; half dozen-twelvemonth follow-up) (Cole & Maxwell, 2003). Short-term and long-term effects of intervention-induced changes in parenting on coping processes were assessed given bear witness to suggest that program effects of preventive interventions may non be immediately detectable, and may strengthen rather than diminish over time (e.g., Vitaro et al, 2001).

Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) with Mplus software (Version 5.1 Muthén & Muthén, 1998-2007) was used to examine the mediational models. Dissever models were tested for short-term and long-term effects. The models included both mediators (female parent-child relationship quality, bailiwick) and all coping variables (active coping, avoidant coping, coping efficacy) simultaneously. The MPlus feature for Full Information Maximum Likelihood interpretation with missing information (FIML) was used to business relationship for missing scale scores. FIML procedures directly estimate the parameter values of interest that best fit all the available raw data, and have been shown to be superior to traditional missing data techniques (run into Schafer & Graham, 2002).

In both arbitration models, the program effect on the mediators was represented past the T2 mediator variable decision-making for the pre-exam mediator. The programme effects on T2 coping were included, controlling for pre-test coping. T2 coping was partialled out when examining the effects from the T2 mediators to T4 and T5 coping. Initial models controlled for the program x pre-exam mediator interactions given previous analyses take shown both chief and interactive program furnishings on parenting (Wolchik et al., 2002; Zhou, Sandler, Millsap, Wolchik, & Dawson-McClure, 2008). These interaction terms were dropped if they were not institute to significantly predict the T2 mediators.

Correlations were computed in the total sample between age, gender, time since separation and the two parenting and iii coping variables to identify potential covariates. Covariates were selected for inclusion in the initial models if they were significantly related to one or more of the mediators (i.e., mother-child relationship quality, discipline) or outcome variables (i.eastward., T4 and T5 coping variables). These covariates were once again evaluated in the full structural equation model and nonsignificant paths betwixt the covariates and mediators/outcomes were dropped.

According to guidelines outlined by MacKinnon, Krull, and Lockwood (2000), support for two sets of hypotheses is necessary to establish mediational pathways: a) the independent variable should predict the hypothesized mediators and b) the mediators should predict the outcomes after controlling for the direct program effect. The significance of the mediation consequence was tested for each significant mediational pathway using the PRODCLIN asymmetrical confidence limits procedure (Mackinnon, Lockwood, Hoffman, Due west, & Sheets, 2002; Mackinnon, Lockwood, & Williams, 2004). In their review of the most common tests of mediation, Fritz and Mackinnon (2007) reported that this procedure provides a more powerful method of testing arbitration than more traditional approaches, such as Baron and Kenny (1986).

In the PRODCLIN method, the significance of the mediational pathway (production of the path from the independent variable to the mediator, and path from the mediator to the issue variable) is tested past forming disproportionate confidence limits using upper and lower disquisitional values from the distribution of the product of two normal random variables (Meeker, Cornwell, & Aroian, 1981). If nothing does not fall in the 95% confidence interval (CI) of the upper and lower critical values, the mediation issue is considered pregnant. Given that the distribution of the production of two normal random variables is not normal, Mackinnon et al. (2004) argue that it is more than accurate to employ these disproportionate confidence intervals rather than intervals based on the standard normal distribution.

Results

Preliminary Analyses

To ensure that the 2 active intervention conditions, MP and MPCP, could be combined into a single group for the current analyses, a Box's Chiliad analysis was performed on all study variables. The Box's M analysis is a stringent omnibus test of the equality and symmetry of variance/covariance matrices in two groups (Winer, 1971). If the test is nonsignificant, the two variance/covariance matrices are equivalent, implying that the regression paths, variances and residual variances in the SEM are invariant and the relations amongst the variables do not differ in the ii groups. Results revealed that the variance/covariance matrices were not significantly different (Box's M = 153.26; F(136) = 1.01, p = .35; χ²(136) = 138.03, p = .44). All remaining analyses treated the MP and MPCP conditions as a unmarried intervention grouping.

To minimize measurement mistake and to ensure the breadth of the parenting constructs were fully represented (Epstein, 1983), the parenting measures were combined into two blended variables, mother-child human relationship quality and bailiwick, using mother and kid reports of multiple measures. These composites were sensitive to intervention effects in previous evaluations of the NBP (Wolchik et al., 2000; Zhou et al., 2008). To ostend the appropriateness of creating the composite variables across informants and measures, confirmatory gene analyses (CFA) were conducted on the two T2 parenting constructs. As suggested by Cole and Maxwell (2003), the mistake variances of measures within the same reporter were permitted to correlate to capture shared method variance when this action improved model fit. The 2 factor model fit the information adequately [αⁱⁱ(23) = 35.36, p = .05; CFI = .98; RMSEA = .05; SRMR = .04]. All loadings were significant and loaded on the hypothesized gene.

To confirm that the same parenting constructs applied to male and female children, measurement invariance of the gene model was tested. Results indicated that all gene loadings, factor variances, factor covariances, and intercepts were invariant beyond gender [constrained model α²(63) = 81.44, p = .06; CFI = .97; RMSEA = .05; SRMR = .12]. The divergence betwixt the constrained model and unconstrained model was non pregnant [chi-square divergence, Δχ² =9.855; df difference, Δ df = x, p = .45]. These results indicate that the composites functioned equivalently for boys and girls.

Because previous analyses have demonstrated that the NBP had a significant program effect on T5 active coping for youth who were high in baseline risk (Wolchik et al., 2007), tests were conducted to determine whether the mediated or indirect furnishings differed by baseline chance. Take chances was operationalized every bit a composite of baseline measures that were the almost consequent predictors of mental health problems at T5 (Dawson-McClure et al., 2004): kid externalizing issues and a composite of environmental stress (i.e., negative events that occurred to the child, interparental conflict, maternal distress, reduced contact with father, and per capita income). Using a median dissever, a cross-grouping comparison of the mediation models between youth with baseline take chances scores higher up the median and those with scores below the median was conducted. The results showed that the fully constrained model (i.e., constrained path coefficients, variance, and covariance) provided acceptable fit to the data [χ²(114) = 143.92, p = .03; CFI = .96; RMSEA = .05; SRMR = .08]; there were no pregnant differences between the fully unconstrained model and fully constrained model (Δχ² =29.lx; Δ df = 32, p = .59). Consequently, the primary mediation analyses were conducted with the full sample.

Cross-group comparisons of the mediation models were likewise conducted by gender. The fully constrained model fit the data adequately at T4 [χ^two(113) = 163.15, p = .001; CFI = .95; RMSEA = .06; SRMR = .08] and at T5 [χⁱⁱ(114) = 149.77, p = .01; CFI = .96; RMSEA = .05; SRMR = .08]. No significant differences between the fully unconstrained and fully constrained models were found at T4 (Δχⁱⁱ =42.51; Δ df = 33, p = .12) or T5 (Δχ² =36.69; Δ df = 32, p = .26). These results indicated that the mediational models did not differ for boys and girls; thus, the primary arbitration analyses were not conducted separately for boys and girls.

Correlations of all study variables are presented in Tables 1 and ​ two. Every bit stated in a higher place, historic period, gender, and time since separation were examined as potential covariates. Age and gender were significantly correlated with T4 avoidant coping; younger children and males reported more than avoidant coping (age: r = -.21, p = .001; gender: r = .14, p = .03). None of the potential covariates was significantly related to the T2 parenting variables, T4 active coping, T4 coping efficacy, or T5 coping variables. Age and gender were included as covariates in the initial model predicting T4 avoidant coping. However, neither path was significant in the full structural equation model so these paths were dropped.

Tabular array two

Nix-Guild Correlations: Parenting Composites and Coping Processes

Measure out (Wave)	ane.	two.	3.	4.	5.	vi.	vii.	8.	9.	10.	11.	12.	13.	14.	15.	sixteen.
Parenting
1. Rel Qual (i)	--	.59***	.70***	.37***	.20**	.00	.33***	.18**	.06	.29**	.14*	.03	.24***	.14	-.xiii	.20**
2. Disp. (1)		--	.44***	.62***	-.04	-.10	.17*	.03	-.06	.13	-.03	-.xiii*	.05	.10	-.13	.12
3. Rel Qual (two)			--	.56***	.fifteen*	-.09	.24***	.27**	.05	.36**	.xvi*	.02	.27***	.17*	-.10	.22**
4. Disp (2)				--	-.02	-.fifteen*	.11	.06	-.10	.xiii*	.05	-.06	.12	.05	-.xiv*	.thirteen
Coping
five. Active (1)					--	.43***	.53***	.43**	.18**	.31**	.36***	.26***	.29***	.13	-.14*	.16*
6. Avert (ane)						--	.12	.18**	.56**	.11	.11	.43***	-.06	.02	.11	-.01
7.Efficacy (1)							--	.23**	-.01	.37**	.22***	.07	.31***	.fourteen*	-.xviii**	.24***
8. Active (ii)								--	.forty**	.54**	.45**	.26**	.31**	.xiii	.07	.xiv
9. Avert (2)									--	.09	.21**	.51**	.00	-.05	.24**	-.13
10.Efficacy(two)										--	.27**	-.13	.forty**	.20**	.06	.23**
11. Agile (4)											--	.59***	.59***	.23**	-.13	.21**
12. Avoid (four)												--	.27***	.10	.17*	.02
13.Efficacy(4)													--	.16*	-.15*	.24**
14. Active (five)														--	.09	.68***
15. Avert (5)															--	-.16*
16.Efficacy(5)																--

Both the brusque-term and long-term models were tested with and without the use of FIML; all paths were in the same direction and at the aforementioned significance level regardless of the handling of missing data. Results of the FIML models are reported. All variables measured at the aforementioned time point were permitted to correlate with i some other. In addition, to ameliorate the model fit, a path was added from T1 avoidant coping to T4 avoidant coping in the short-term model.

Brusque-term arbitration model

Results revealed that the model provided acceptable fit to the data: χ^two (twoscore) = 68.44, p = .003, RMSEA = .05, SRMR = .06, CFI = .97. Equally shown in Figure i, paths from program condition to T2 human relationship quality and T2 discipline were significant (relationship quality: standardized path coefficient, β = .xvi, p = .001; discipline: β = .21, p < .001) indicating that participation in the intervention was significantly associated with improved relationship quality and subject field at T2. The path from T2 human relationship quality to T4 coping efficacy was significant (β = .15, p = .05). The paths from T2 human relationship quality to T4 active coping (β = .07, p = .37) and to T4 avoidant coping (β =.01, p = .94) every bit well as those from T2 field of study to T4 agile coping (β = -.01, p = .92), T4 avoidant coping (β = .01, p = .xc), and T4 coping efficacy (β = .01, p = .93) were non-significant. There were no significant program effects on whatever of the T2 coping variables.

Brusk-Term Arbitration Model: Plan Condition to T2 Mediators to T4 coping variables. All variables measured at the same time betoken are permitted to correlate with each other. For simplicity, those paths are not presented. †p≤. x *p≤. 05 **p ≤.01 ***p≤.001

Significance tests were performed for the mediational effects of mother-child human relationship quality to coping efficacy; this examination reached significance (95% CI: .0061, .3849). These findings suggest that intervention-induced improvements in female parent-child human relationship quality led to improvements in coping efficacy at the 6-month follow-upward.

Long-term mediation model

Results revealed that the model fit the data well: χ² (41) = 55.54, p = .064, RMSEA = .04, SRMR = .05, CFI = .98. Path coefficients are presented in Effigy 2. The paths from program condition to T2 relationship quality and to T2 discipline were significant (mother-child relationship quality: β = .16, p = .001; bailiwick: β = .21, p < .001). T2 relationship quality was significantly associated with T5 active coping (β = .19, p = .03) and coping efficacy (β = .17, p = .05). Similar to the findings with the brusk-term mediation model, the paths from T2 relationship quality to T5 avoidant coping (β = -.06, p = .46) and from T2 discipline to T5 active coping (β = -.05, p = .55), avoidant coping (β = -.08, p = .33), and coping efficacy (β = .01, p = .93) were non-significant.

Long-Term Mediation Model: Program Condition to T2 Mediators to T5 coping variables. All variables measured at the same time point are permitted to correlate with each other. For simplicity, those paths are non presented. *p ≤.05 ** p ≤. 01 *** p ≤.001

Significance tests were performed for the mediational effects of relationship quality to T5 active coping and coping efficacy. Significance was achieved for active coping (95% CI: .0123, .2889) and coping efficacy (95% CI: .0007, .4272). These findings suggest that the intervention-induced improvements in mother-child relationship quality led to improvements in active coping and coping efficacy at the 6-yr follow-up.

Give-and-take

The electric current findings advance our agreement of aspects of parenting that affect children's coping processes. Program-induced improvements in mother-child relationship quality led to significantly college levels of coping efficacy vi months after program completion and significantly higher levels of coping efficacy and active coping six years later on the program. Tests of the mediated effects were significant for all 3 indirect paths. There was no support for links between constructive discipline and active coping or coping efficacy, or betwixt either aspect of parenting and avoidant coping. There was no bear witness that the relations among parenting and coping processes differed by youth gender or baseline hazard status.

Although not examined in the written report, it is interesting to speculate most the mechanisms through which high quality female parent-kid relationships promote adaptive coping. High quality relationships may aid youth feel less threatened past stressful events, encourage them to use mothers every bit resources to help handle stressors, or decrease negative arousal that may interfere with using agile coping efforts. Similarly, such relationships may create opportunities for the mother to reinforce the use of constructive coping and identify coping successes, leading to increases in youth'southward behavior that they accept coped successfully in the by and are likely to succeed in stressful situations in the hereafter. Research that identifies the mechanisms through which loftier quality parenting influences agile coping efforts and coping efficacy would be valuable.

The finding that coping efficacy and agile coping did not increase meantime with the program changes in mother-kid relationship quality, but showed lagged plan effects is consistent with Cummings et al.'s (2000) cascading pathways model. This framework identifies loftier quality parenting as an of import resource for children that facilitates their adaptation after divorce. Dynamic interactions betwixt children's successful adaptation, the resources available to them, and the acquisition of relevant skills are believed to trigger a cascade of positive outcomes in multiple domains over fourth dimension. By improving one of children'south most salient interpersonal resource, the NBP led to increases in coping efficacy and active coping beyond time and developmental periods.

The current findings indicated that timing of program-induced effects on female parent-child human relationship quality differed for coping efficacy and active coping. According to Lazarus and Folkman (1984), prior to engaging in coping behaviors, individuals first appraise the threat value of a stressful consequence and and then evaluate whether in that location is something they can do in response. The conventionalities that there is something they tin can practice most the event is hypothesized to lead to a greater likelihood of actually engaging in adaptive coping behaviors. A similar design unfolded in the current study. High quality mother-child relationships led to improved coping efficacy and to improved active coping, with the positive furnishings of mother-child human relationship kickoff occurring through building children's sense of efficacy in their power to do something in response to stressful events.

Contrary to hypotheses, the relations betwixt constructive discipline and coping efforts and coping efficacy were not-pregnant. The null findings are inconsistent with previous research on the relations between parental discipline and children'southward coping (e.g., Power, 2004; Smith et al., 2006). The discrepancy may exist due to demographic differences in the samples (due east.m., kid age, ethnicity, risk cistron), variation in the aspects of field of study measured, or the utilise of a longitudinal pattern rather than cantankerous-exclusive design. It is also possible that the low reliability of i of the measures of discipline may have contributed to the nada findings.

Neither attribute of parenting was significantly related to avoidant coping. Although contrary to the hypotheses, these results are not entirely unexpected given Power'southward (2004) conclusion that the findings of studies on the relations betwixt parenting and children'due south avoidant coping are inconsistent. It is possible that avoidant coping may exist better predicted by individual departure factors such as temperamental approach-withdrawal tendencies (Derryberry, Reed, & Pilkenton-Taylor, 2003) than by social-environmental factors, such as parenting. Further, no differences were found by baseline risk status or kid gender in the current sample. Additional inquiry is necessary to further clarify the office of child gender, baseline run a risk, and other potentially important moderators of the relations between parenting and children'southward coping processes.

The current study has several limitations that propose directions for future research. First, the sample consisted of youth in divorced families. Examination of these research questions with other at-risk groups as well every bit youth who accept not recently experienced major life events is a valuable direction for future inquiry. Second, the families were nearly exclusively non-Hispanic Caucasian and center-class. Larger, ethnically-diverse samples are needed to test whether ethnicity, socioeconomic status or both moderate the relations betwixt parenting and coping processes. Third, although randomization to the experimental and control weather reduces concerns regarding the role of tertiary variables, such as biological and economic factors, in explaining the changes in parenting, it does not fully eliminate the possibility of the influence of third variables that may confound the relations between parenting and coping (Pearl, 2000). Fourth, youth in this study were pre- to early-adolescents at pre-test. Futurity work could examine the relations between aspects of parenting and coping at other developmental levels. Finally, the current report examined two aspects of the family environment, mother-child relationship quality and effective subject. An of import direction for future research involves attention to how other family unit variables such every bit male parent-child human relationship quality and interparental disharmonize shape coping processes.

Raising Healthy Children: Implications for Policy and Exercise

One major contribution of this study is that it allows stronger causal inferences almost the effects of parenting on coping processes to exist fatigued as compared to prior studies. Both the three-moving ridge longitudinal pattern, which provided temporal precedence betwixt each link in the hypothesized chain, and the test of relations between plan-induced improvements in parenting and subsequent changes in youth'due south coping processes strengthen the inference that loftier quality parenting led to more agile coping efforts and higher coping efficacy. The paucity of longitudinal studies and the absenteeism of prior experimental work in this area highlight the importance of this contribution.

Given that coping efforts and coping efficacy are related to a wide range of mental health outcomes and are believed to be of import for adaptation beyond the life-span (Compas et al., 2001), the current findings have significance for programs and policies that affect children's development. Although many preventive interventions targeting children's coping efforts arbitrate through straight instruction with children, the current findings suggest that coping efforts tin can be modified in an indirect manner. A practical implication of the electric current findings for the broadcasting of preventive interventions is that a parenting intervention may be sufficient to amend youth's coping. Given the substantial difference in costs of single- and dual-component programs, research that examines the effect of other parent-focused programs on youth's coping processes has important public policy implications. Also, practitioners working with divorced families to improve children'southward coping efforts might consider incorporating parent training into the treatment. By improving the quality of the mother-child relationship, practitioners could facilitate increases in active coping efforts and coping efficacy.

The current findings emphasize the importance of follow-upwardly assessments in evaluations of interventions for at-adventure youth. Previous evaluations of the NBP and other prevention programs take demonstrated that the magnitude and breadth of intervention-induced improvements in parenting and youth mental health problems grow rather than diminish over fourth dimension (Sandler et al., 2008, Wolchik et al., 2007). The electric current study complements these findings by indicating that the magnitude of the effects of intervention-induced improvements in parenting on children's agile coping efforts grew over time. I possible machinery by which the NBP has long-term effects on youth's mental wellness problems is past enhancing their ability to cope finer with the stressors they feel. Testing such multi-linkage meditational models is necessary to elucidate the processes past which prevention programs promote resilience resources and reduce mental health problems over time.

This study has implications for the futurity piece of work on transporting the NBP from a university setting into community settings. An of import step in dissemination is the identification of core elements of the programme that are essential to achieve positive programme effects and therefore must be retained and implemented with high levels of fidelity when the program is delivered in community settings (Toll & Lorion, 1989; Wolchik, Sandler, Winslow, & Smith-Daniels, 2005). This study extends previous investigations of the effects of the NBP (Wolchik et al. 2000; 2002; Tein, Sandler, MacKinnon & Wolchik, 2004; Zhou et al., 2008), which have shown that mother-child relationship quality accounted for programme effects on mental wellness outcomes past demonstrating that improvements in active coping and coping efficacy were also accounted for past change in this family-level resources. The current findings add together back up for viewing the parts of the plan that target mother-kid human relationship quality as core components.

Summary

The current study demonstrated that past increasing one of children'southward nearly important interpersonal resource, mother-child relationship quality, the NBP improved youth's coping efficacy and active coping. This finding permits stronger causal inferences regarding the relations between parenting and children'southward coping processes relative to previous work in this area and identifies female parent-child relationship quality as an of import modifiable predictor of children'southward coping processes. This written report besides illustrates the contribution that experimental trials of preventive interventions can make to developmental models. By demonstrating that children'southward coping processes can be modified through parenting programs, the current findings have of import implications for the design, evaluation, dissemination, and toll-effectiveness of preventive interventions as well as full general clinical exercise targeting divorced families.

Acknowledgments

Back up for this research was provided past grants for the Prevention Research Center at Arizona State University (ii P30MH439246-18 and 5 P30MH068685-3, ASU Prevention Inquiry Center for Families In Stress; 5T32MH01837-15, Research Training in Child Mental Health/Principal Prevention), and a grant for a 6-twelvemonth follow-upward of the preventive intervention under study (1 R01MH057013-01A). The authors are grateful to the families for their participation.

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Source: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3057658/

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